Beyond Bayanihan: A Call for Justice and Ecological Transformation in the Philippines

Beyond Bayanihan: A Call for Justice and Ecological Transformation in the Philippines

Abstract

The Philippines faces a systemic crisis in which climate devastation, corporate greed, and governmental negligence have turned natural hazards into deadly, humanmade disasters. This paper argues that the root cause lies in a neoliberal, extractive capitalist system that privileges profit, political patronage, and elite control over public welfare and ecological integrity. A decadelong chronology (20102025) illustrates how repeated catastrophes—lethal debris flows, supertyphoons, landslides, and dam projects—are amplified by illegal logging, mining, quarrying, monocrop agribusiness, and the erosion of natural buffers such as mangroves and watersheds.

Key sectors examined include:

· Mining and quarrying across Zamboanga, Nueva Vizcaya, Cebu, Palawan, Caraga, Davao de Oro, and the La Mesa watershed, highlighting water contamination, deforestation, indigenous displacement, and regulatory failure.

· Infrastructure projects such as the Kaliwa Dam, whose ecological and humanrights impacts exacerbate vulnerability.

· Coastal and soil degradation driven by mangrove loss and petrochemicalintensive monocultures, which diminish natural resilience and intensify foodsecurity risks.

The analysis links these environmental harms to pervasive corruption—dynastic patronage, ghost floodcontrol projects, and misappropriation of climatefinance—demonstrating how plunder of public resources directly fuels poverty, hunger, and labor precariety.

Path forward proposes a twopronged strategy:

1. Institutional justice – criminal and financial accountability for corrupt officials and corporations; robust protection for humanrights, land, and environmental defenders; legislative reforms (National LandUse Act, Alternative Minerals Management Law, Climate Accountability Act).

2. Ecological systemic transformation – shift subsidies from extractive monocrops to regenerative agroecological economies; adopt sovereigntybased industrialization that treats strategic minerals as commons; impose a total ban on destructive extraction in critical watersheds and coastal zones; launch massive mangrove and reforestation programs.

The paper culminates in a People’s Mandate: establishing a directly democratic “Organ of Political Power” that enacts integrated tasks—popular sovereignty, life-sustaining resourcing, consciousness transformation, bioregional accountability, and strategic coherence—to dismantle the existing extractive order and construct a just, regenerative, and climate-resilient Philippines.

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Beyond Bayanihan: A Call for Justice and Ecological Transformation in the Philippines

Before proposing solutions, we first need to grasp how the present crisis took shape.

I - Introduction

The Philippines is gripped by a systemic crisis where escalating climate destruction, corporate greed, and government negligence have transformed natural hazards into fatal, human-made disasters. We must refuse to accept a future where the only strength we exhibit is in post-disaster Bayanihan (community spirit). The time for radical systemic change and accountability is not just now—it is long overdue.

This crisis—encompassing environmental destruction, pervasive corruption, and the violent suppression of dissent—is a direct, systemic impact of the dominant capitalist system imposing neoliberal policies. This global framework prioritizes endless extraction, profit maximization, and the accumulation of power and wealth for a few, imposing itself across the political, economic, and social cultures of the society. These issues are not inherent flaws of nature or humanity; they are a creation of the dominant system. Since this system is a construct, it logically follows that it can be deconstructed or destroyed, making the building of a just future an everyday responsibility, in the hands of every person in all society, regardless of gender and social status.

Understanding the roots of the problem becomes clearer when we trace the timeline of disasters over the past decade.

II - The Crisis: A Systemic Progression of Extractive and Climate Catastrophe

The Philippines is being battered by increasingly intense typhoons—a direct consequence of a climate system ruined by excessive global and local destruction. This extreme weather is not cyclical; it is systemic, and its effects are lethally amplified by the nation’s dependence on extractive and ecologically destructive economic policies.

Each headline event reveals a recurring pattern of underlying causes.

A Decade Progression of Catastrophe: The Catastrophe of Extractive Failure (2010–2025)

The pattern of disaster has been tragically consistent:

Early in the decade, unchecked deforestation set the stage for deadly flash floods.

1. Lethal Debris Flows (2011–2012): Typhoon Sendong (Washi) in 2011 caused over 1,200 deaths. Super Typhoon Pablo (Bopha) in 2012 killed over 1,060 people. The lethal flash floods were directly linked to illegal deforestation and watershed denudation. Total damages from Pablo reached an estimated ₱34.7 billion (per NDRRMC data).

One policy response attempted to curb that deforestation, though implementation proved uneven.

Contextual Note on Logging Moratorium: In an effort to address deforestation,    President Benigno S. Aquino III issued Executive Order No. 23 (2011), declaring a moratorium on the cutting and harvesting of timber in natural and residual forests and creating the Anti-Illegal Logging Task Force. This logging moratorium remained in effect but faced implementation challenges.

The scale of destruction escalated dramatically with Super Typhoon Haiyan.

2. The Catastrophic Benchmark (2013): Super Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) in 2013 resulted in over 6,300 deaths and caused estimated total damages and losses of ₱571.1 billion ($12.9 billion) (World Bank/NDRRMC). Annual typhoon losses could reach 1.2% of GDP on average (World Bank, 2022 [4.1]).

Even a decade later, storms grew more powerful and costly.

3. Recent Mega-Storms and Extreme Intensification (2021): Super Typhoon Odette (Rai) in December 2021 caused over ₱51.8 billion in damages to infrastructure and agriculture (NDRRMC, 2022).

Recent events illustrate how the “new normal” of climate‑linked tragedies is unfolding.

4. The New Tragic Normal (2024–2025): The February 2024 Masara, Maco landslide (Davao de Oro), where nearly 100 people were killed, reinforced the hazard of locating communities near extractive operations. Alyansa Tigil Mina (ATM) stressed the link between mining and the exacerbation of climate change impacts (ATM Statement, Feb 2024 [1.3]). The hypothetical Typhoon Tino caused 269 deaths, while Super Typhoon Uwan devastated parts of Luzon in November 2025.

To address these symptoms, we must first expose the institutional drivers behind them.

III - The Root Cause: Systemic Failure and Criminal Negligence in Plunder

Our vulnerability is institutional, resulting from policy choices that prioritize profit and political gain over public safety and ecological balance.

Four interlocking pillars show how power, profit, and policy converge to erode ecosystems.

A. The Global-Local Alliance of Plunder: The Quadruple Crisis of Ecological Collapse

The failures are four-fold, critically underpinned by the monopoly of power held by local political dynasties and fueled by transnational corporate demand. This rot system is not only national but transcends global influence, with foreign investment and global supply chains creating an inexhaustible demand for cheap, destructive extraction.

Mining and quarrying lie at the heart of the ecological breakdown.

1. Destruction by Mining and Quarrying:

Policy shifts over the years have repeatedly opened the door to expanded extraction.

A. Contextual Note on Mining Policy Reversal: Former President Benigno S. Aquino III issued Executive Order No. 79 (2012), which prohibited the grant of new mineral agreements until a new mining revenue-sharing scheme was enacted. Furthermore, former DENR Secretary Gina Lopez (2016–2017) undertook an aggressive audit of the mining sector, resulting in the closure or suspension of 26 large-scale mining operations due to serious environmental violations. She also imposed a ban on open-pit mining. However, after her rejection by the Commission on Appointments and her departure, her closure/suspension orders were generally not implemented, and the ban on new mining agreements (which had been in place since 2012) was lifted by President Rodrigo Duterte in April 2021 via Executive Order No. 130, opening the country to new mining projects and ultimately reversing PNoy's and Lopez’s environmental protections. The Ferdinand Marcos Jr. administration continued this direction, openly encouraging the revitalization and expansion of the mining industry as a key economic priority for revenue generation and global supply chain integration, particularly for green metals, cementing the reversal of previous restrictions.

The Zamboanga Peninsula exemplifies how large‑scale mineral extraction harms both environment and communities.

B. Zamboanga Peninsula Mineral Exploitation and Threats (Region IX): The Zamboanga Peninsula is a major site of metallic mineral extraction, primarily Gold, Silver, Copper, Iron, Nickel, Chromite, and Manganese, leading to a confluence of environmental and human rights crises:

Key Corporations and Areas of Operation: Major operations include those by TVI Resource Development (Phils) Inc. (TVIRD), a Filipino company that was formerly a subsidiary of Canadian-based TVI Pacific Inc. TVIRD has operated the Canatuan Gold-Silver-Copper Mine in Siocon, Zamboanga del Norte, and is currently operating the Balabag Gold-Silver Project in Bayog, Zamboanga del Sur/Sibugay. Other firms with active interests or exploration permits include Zamboanga Nickel Corporation (ZNC), Czarstone Mining Corporation, Maharlika Dragon Mining Corp., Philex Gold Philippines, Inc., Geotechniques and Mines Inc. (with reported Chinese investor share), and Atro Mining-Vitali, Inc.

The concrete consequences of those operations become evident in water, forest, and livelihood impacts.

Specific Effects, Risks, and Threats to the Peninsula:

Water Contamination and Perpetual Pollution: Mining operations, particularly the extraction of gold, copper, and base metal deposits which contain significant levels of sulfide minerals, generate Acid Mine Drainage (AMD). This highly toxic effluent can cause perpetual contamination of groundwater and surface waters with heavy metals (e.g., Lead, Cadmium, Arsenic), which are toxic to humans and wildlife, as allegedly occurred in Siocon, Zamboanga del Norte, where seas were polluted. The heavy metal runoff has severely impacted aquatic biodiversity and poses direct health risks to the population relying on these water sources. \

Forest Loss and Geohazards: Activities in provinces like Zamboanga Sibugay have led to the clearing of over 10,000 hectares of forest land in recent years, resulting in severe deforestation and soil erosion (Makakalikasan Nature Party, 2025 [3.1]). This loss of critical protective cover, combined with massive earth movement from open-pit mining (such as TVIRD's former Canatuan operation), significantly increases the likelihood and magnitude of landslides and flash floods, even with light rainfall, posing a direct threat to communities in nearby municipalities. This destruction of the ecosystem's natural resilience directly translates to lost lives and livelihoods for the local population during climate events.

Displacement of Indigenous Peoples and Human Rights Violations: The Subanen Indigenous Peoples of Zamboanga are severely impacted. Operations, such as the former Canatuan mine, were located within a sacred mountain and ancestral domain, leading to protests, dislocation of residents, and concerns over human rights impacts. The Balabag Gold-Silver Project of TVIRD in Bayog is also located within an ancestral domain (CADT), raising continued concerns about the violation of the Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) protocol and the destruction of cultural heritage sites. These resource conflicts are amplified by the state's prioritization of foreign capital and the regulatory capture by local political actors.

Livelihood Destruction: Contamination of local rivers and marine ecosystems leads to a significant decline in aquatic biodiversity and fish catch, directly affecting the livelihood of thousands of farmers and fishing communities in the region (Makakalikasan Nature Party, 2025 [3.1]).

Illegal Mining and Regulatory Failure: The region is plagued by the proliferation of illegal gold mining which exacerbates water contamination, deforestation, and biodiversity loss. Furthermore, some large-scale firms have been accused by local officials of conducting full-scale mining operations while only holding an exploration permit, underscoring pervasive regulatory confusion, non-alignment, and lack of enforcement that emboldens plunderers (ANC Rundown, 2023 [1.4]; CBCP News, 2021 [4.5]). This failure of governance is the clearest link between political corruption and irreversible ecological damage.

Similar patterns repeat in other regions, such as Nueva Vizcaya’s gold‑copper project.

C. Nueva Vizcaya Mining: The Didipio Gold and Copper mine (operated by OceanaGold, an Australian-Canadian company) has caused large human rights violations and environmental destruction, including heavy metal contamination of rivers significantly exceeding standard safety limits, deforestation, and declining fish stock affecting local communities and irrigation (Ej Atlas, 2022 [3.1]). The degradation of the watershed and loss of fish stocks directly compromise the ecosystem's function and the population's food sources, all while being driven by foreign capital.

Cebu’s quarrying and mining activities add further pressure on local ecosystems.

D. Cebu Quarrying and Mining: Large-scale operations include cement quarrying (e.g., Apo Cement Corporation – Cemex (Foreign/Mexican) in Naga/City of Carcar) and copper/gold mining (e.g., Carmen Copper Corporation / Atlas Consolidated Mining and Development Corporation, a major Filipino firm, in Toledo City). The Carmen Copper Mine suffered a deadly landslide in December 2020 following a storm, underscoring systemic weaknesses in slope management and hazard monitoring. The mine's operations have long raised concerns over environmental and safety risks.

Palawan’s nickel and chromite extraction brings additional environmental hazards.

E. Palawan Mining: The main extraction activities involve nickel and chromite. Key operators include Rio Tuba Nickel Mining Corporation (RTNMC) (a Filipino company under Nickel Asia Corp., linked to Sumitomo Metal Mining Co., Ltd. of Japan) in Bataraza, and CITINICKEL Mines and Development Corporation (a Filipino company) in Narra/Sofronio Española. RTNMC's operations and those of the affiliated Coral Bay Nickel Processing Plant have been linked to hexavalent chromium contamination in the Togpon River (a known carcinogen) and wiping out old-growth forests in the ecologically critical Mt. Mantalingahan range, endangering endemic biodiversity and water sources (Ej Atlas, 2022 [5.3], Electronics Watch, 2022 [5.2]).

In the Caraga region, nickel mining drives massive deforestation and coastal vulnerability.

F. Surigao del Norte and Dinagat Mining (Caraga Region): Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, and Dinagat Islands Mining (Caraga Region): This region is the mining capital of the Philippines, rich in nickel. Mining operations, driven by both local and politically connected companies and foreign demand (with 92% of nickel ore exported to China), have caused severe environmental degradation and biodiversity loss. Impacts include massive deforestation, loss of terrestrial and mangrove forests (which increases vulnerability to storm surges and flooding, as seen during Typhoon Odette), and siltation and pollution of drinking water and fisheries, posing an existential threat to fishing and farming livelihoods in one of the nation's most impoverished regions (Climate Rights International, 2025 [2.1, 2.2]).

Population and Livelihood Impact: Residents of Dinagat Islands and Surigao del Sur experience pollution of water sources, loss of fishing and farming livelihoods, and increased food insecurity (CRI, 2025 [1.1]). Silt and mud from mining operations push fisherfolk farther out to sea, increasing fuel costs and danger, and reducing catch, directly degrading the socio-economic conditions of the coastal population. Communities also face loss of livelihood, threats, and criminalization for opposing mining activities (CRI, 2025 [1.1]).

Ecosystem and Biodiversity Impact: The operations cause massive deforestation and mangrove loss (reducing coastal resilience), and siltation of farmlands and coastal waters. Studies on Odonata (dragonfly) fauna, a reliable bio-indicator, in Surigao del Sur show that sites with mine tailings have significantly lower abundance, species richness, and endemism than sites without, confirming that mine tailings adversely affect local biodiversity (ResearchGate, 2025 [1.2]). Furthermore, the large number of mining concessions in Dinagat Island directly threatens the island's unique and highly endemic plant and forest habitat types (Bantay Kita, 2023 [4.4]; ResearchGate, 2018 [4.3]).

Linkages: The extraction of nickel, crucial for electric vehicle batteries and the global "green" transition, directly links the destruction to foreign supply chains and capital. The documented lack of regulatory oversight and accountability, despite community demands, highlights the powerful influence of politically connected mining companies and pervasive corruption that allows this sustained ecological devastation (Bantay Kita, 2023 [4.4]). This destruction directly amplifies climate risk and subjects the local population to perpetual poverty and toxic living conditions, illustrating the direct link between global capital and local devastation.

The tragic 2024 landslide in Davao de Oro underscores mining‑related risk.

G. Gold Mining in Davao de Oro (e.g., Maco): The February 2024 Masara, Maco landslide disaster highlighted the extreme dangers posed to the population in areas where mining is rampant and compounded by an eroded environment. Operations by firms like Apex Mining Co., Inc. have raised concerns about environmental impacts and obstruction of public services. The connection between the presence of politically linked mining corporations and the vulnerability of the population to catastrophic landslides is explicit, showing the failure of governance and corruption in enforcing safety.

Nickel Mining in Davao Oriental (DavOr): Companies like Hallmark Mining Corporation (HMC) are actively operating for nickel extraction near the buffer zone of Mount Hamiguitan Range Wildlife Sanctuary, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and critical habitat for endemic species. The encroachment of large-scale mining into a global biodiversity site for nickel, driven by international demand, is a clear failure of the state to protect a crucial ecosystem, often enabled by political influence that overrides conservation mandates.

Urban water security is likewise threatened by watershed degradation.

H. La Mesa Dam and Watershed: The La Mesa Dam is a critical watershed, supplying water to Metro Manila. While the primary environmental threat is historic degradation from illegal settlers converting vast forested areas into farmlands (leading to excessive soil erosion, siltation, and loss of biodiversity), the overall threat of extractive activities (e.g., quarrying or encroachment) in the remaining forest, the only remaining forest inside the highly urbanized NCR, compounds the climate-related risk to Manila’s water security (cifor-icraf, 2024 [1.3]).

Large‑scale infrastructure projects compound the pressure on ecosystems and Indigenous rights.

2. The Kaliwa Dam Project: Ecological and Rights Crisis:

The Kaliwa Dam (New Centennial Water Source Project) is a major infrastructure project (currently at 24.8% completion rate as of December 2024) designed to supply 600 million liters of water daily to Metro Manila. The project, funded by a $211.2 million Official Development Assistance (ODA) loan from China (secured during the Duterte administration and continued under the Marcos Jr. administration), faces severe opposition.

Biodiversity and Environmental Damage: The dam's reservoir is expected to submerge at least 93 hectares of forestland within the Kaliwa Watershed Forest Reserve (a recognized wildlife sanctuary), impacting the habitat of 126 endemic species and directly threatening the survival of critically-endangered wildlife like the Philippine Eagle, Philippine brown deer, and Philippine warty pig. Construction of associated roads and infrastructure has already led to 291 hectares of forest cover loss and is projected to exacerbate the risk of landslides and flash floods in the Sierra Madre mountain range (PCIJ, 2024 [1.3], Mongabay, 2019 [1.2]).

Indigenous and Social Impact: The project area covers the ancestral domains of the Dumagat-Remontado Indigenous communities in Rizal and Quezon provinces. Critics allege the Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) process was flawed and manipulated, with genuine opposition from communities being ignored. The dam and its associated flooding risk threaten to displace and affect thousands of families (estimates vary from 200 families directly displaced to over 2,400 households impacted in Daraitan village alone) and will submerge sacred sites along the Tinipak River (Context by TRF, 2023 [1.5], PNA, 2023 [3.2]).

Financial and Governance Concerns: The total project cost, initially P12.2 billion, has been recently raised to ₱15.3 billion by the NEDA Board (April-May 2025), amidst continued opposition and scrutiny over its financial viability and the terms of the Chinese ODA loan (ABS-CBN News, 2025 [4.1]). Furthermore, the Commission on Audit (COA) flagged the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS) for failing to show proof of compliance with DENR requirements when the environmental clearance was issued (PCIJ, 2024 [1.3]).

Even when water is the focus, the loss of natural coastal defenses magnifies disaster risk.

3. Destruction of Coastal Buffers: Collapse of Coastal Resilience due to Conversion:

The Philippines has already lost nearly half of its 450,000 hectares of mangroves by the 1990s (Context by TRF, 2025 [1.3]). This loss is primarily driven by the conversion of mangrove areas to aquaculture (fishponds), infrastructure development, and human settlements, rather than solely individual illegal logging (Context by TRF, 2025 [1.3]).

Protective Value: Mangroves act as a crucial natural defense by reducing wave heights and wind energy, retaining sediments to prevent erosion, and maintaining tidal channels (Waves Partnership, 2016 [1.1], Nature Conservancy [1.2]). A 500-meter-wide mangrove forest can reduce wave heights by 50–100% (Waves Partnership, 2016 [1.1]).

Impact of Loss: Without the current mangroves (as of 2010 data), 24% more people would be flooded annually (an additional 613,000 people), and damages to residential and industrial property would increase by 28% to more than US$1 billion annually (Waves Partnership, 2016 [1.1], Conservation Gateway, 2016 [1.4]). If the mangroves lost between 1950 and 2010 were restored, it would bring more than US$450 million per year in flood protection benefits (Waves Partnership, 2016 [1.1]).

Consequence: This collapse in natural coastal resilience makes the majority of the Filipino population living in coastal areas significantly more vulnerable to storm surges, floods, and sea level rise, amplifying the destructive power of typhoons (World Bank, 2017 [5.1], Context by TRF, 2025 [1.3]).

Soil health determines how well landscapes can absorb climatic shocks.

4. Soil Degradation by Agribusiness (Monocrops): The Systematic Degradation of Soil Resilience

The systematic degradation of soil resilience is driven by petrochemical farming and the corporate practice of monocropping. Monoculture, the practice of repeatedly growing the same crop (such as banana, pineapple, or high-yield corn) on the same land, depletes the soil of specific, similar nutrients year after year, fundamentally reducing the soil's organic matter (OM) and total fertility over time.

This loss of natural fertility and organic matter makes the soil physically and chemically constrained—it becomes acidic, develops low nutrient contents, and its water retention capacity is severely reduced. The widespread degraded upland soils throughout the country often possess chemical and physical constraints for crop growth, like acidic conditions and low levels of essential nutrients like Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K).

To maintain yields in the face of this natural decline, corporate agribusinesses are forced to rely heavily on massive, continuous applications of inorganic chemical fertilizers and pesticides. This creates a vicious cycle where the overuse of these petrochemicals further disrupts the natural microbial landscape of the soil, decreasing beneficial microbes, accumulating host-specific pathogens, and increasing the risks of nutrient pollution and the accumulation of heavy metals or toxic residues, such as the herbicide Glyphosate, especially in areas of intensive monoculture (e.g., GMO corn and soy used for feed).

This systemic agricultural mismanagement, particularly the expansion of farming into sloping upland areas and without proper soil and water conservation measures, accelerates soil erosion at rates far exceeding the acceptable level of 3−10 tons/ha/year. Some cultivated plots in sloping areas have reported erosion rates ranging from 36 to 218 tons/ha/year. The Bureau of Soil and Water Management (BSWM) reported that an estimated 53 percent of the nation’s 8 million hectares of agricultural land have been degraded by erosion, with the National Action Plan (NAP) for 2004–2010 estimating that about 5.2 million hectares are seriously degraded, resulting in a 30–50% reduction in soil productivity and water retention capacity. This soil loss, which occurs on a human time scale but takes geological time to form, leads to a decline in farm productivity that requires increasing inputs just to maintain existing yield levels.

Major Monocrop Areas and Companies: Plantations in Mindanao (South Cotabato, Davao del Sur, Bukidnon) feature Banana (Dole Philippines, Inc., Sumifru Philippines, Corp., both US/Japanese companies) and Pineapple (Del Monte Philippines, Inc., a US company). Large tracts are also dedicated to Oil Palm and chemically intensive Tobacco/Hybrid Corn in Luzon.

A. The Impact of Climate Crisis and Neglect on Food Production and the Whole Economy

The interconnected issues of soil degradation and the state's neglect of a sustainable agricultural sector have gravely magnified the nation's vulnerability to the climate crisis, with devastating consequences for food production and the entire economy.

1. Direct Agricultural Losses and Reduced Production:

The Philippines is projected to face a 1.7 percent contraction in total crop production by 2050 compared to a baseline without climate change, with cereal production projected to fall by 6.1 percent. The impact on corn production is expected to be significantly high (a decline of 13.0 percent) and rice production is projected to decline by 3.2 percent by 2050.

Rising temperatures and extreme weather events—including more intense droughts (like the 2015–2016 El Niño event, which affected 413,456 farmers) and heavy rainfall causing massive soil erosion—disrupt crop cycles and lead to declining yields. Analysis shows that irrigated rice grain yield decreased by at least 10% for each 1∘C increase in growing-season minimum temperature during the dry season.

Fisheries are equally threatened, with the maximum fish catch potential of Philippine seas projected to decrease by as much as 50% by 2051–2060 compared to 2001–2010 levels due to coral loss and warming seas.

2. Economic Contraction and Inflation:

The nation faces a dire economic threat, with the potential to lose 6% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) annually by 2100 if climate change risks are disregarded. This long-term cost is compounded by indirect economic costs from malnutrition-driven productivity loss, estimated at over $470 million (₱21 billion) yearly for the 40-year period to 2050, based on 2010 figures.

Reduced productivity and supply lead to significant food price inflation. By 2050, consumer prices are projected to increase substantially for cereals (24 percent), fruits and vegetables (13 percent), and pulses (12 percent), making food less accessible, particularly for the poor.

3. Worsening Food Security, Hunger, and Poverty (2010–2025):

The combined pressures of ecological degradation and the climate crisis translate directly into worsening food insecurity and hunger, despite a long-term trend of improvement.

The prevalence of undernourishment—the percentage of the population with insufficient caloric intake—was recorded at 8.6% in 2016 (down from 11.3% in 2008 and 18.8% in 2000). While the rate continued to decline, reaching 5.9% in 2022 and projected to hover near this level by 2024–2025, the number of people experiencing hunger remains massive.

The Global Hunger Index (GHI) classified the Philippines' level of hunger as "moderate" in 2024, with a score of 14.4 (an improvement from the "serious" level of 18.9 in 2008 and 24.9 in 2000). However, child stunting, reflecting chronic undernutrition, was still recorded as high at 26.7% in 2024. The total number of malnourished children in the Philippines, which stood at 3 million in 2010, is projected to increase by 50,000 by 2050 due to climate change impacts on agriculture, reversing years of progress.

Regarding Poverty Incidence (official government statistics), significant progress was made from 2006 to 2018, but the COVID-19 pandemic caused a sharp setback. The poverty rate for the general population was recorded at 16.7% in 2018. Amid the economic recession caused by the pandemic, an estimated 2.3 million Filipinos fell into poverty between 2018 and 2021.

By 2023, the official poverty rate stood at 16.4%, representing approximately 18.06 million Filipinos living below the poverty threshold. The vulnerability remains extremely high, as evidenced by a 2024 social survey where 16.3 million Filipino families considered themselves poor (Self-Rated Poverty). This high poverty and hunger incidence is strongly concentrated in rural areas, which are most directly affected by the decline in farm productivity, water scarcity, and the destructive cycle of petrochemical farming and climate shock.

4. The Failed National Greening Program (NGP): The program was plagued by corruption and poor implementation despite being allocated ₱47.22 billion ($1 billion) (COA reports).

Scale and Goal: The NGP, established in 2011, aimed to plant 1.5 billion trees across 1.5 million hectares nationwide by 2016, and was later extended until 2028. It represented the government’s largest-ever national reforestation program.

Core Failure: Corruption and Implementation: The program was repeatedly flagged by the Commission on Audit (COA) for extensive financial and operational irregularities. Key findings included the overpricing of seedlings, the disbursement of funds for unverified or ghost plantations, and the use of non-species-appropriate trees (e.g., planting fruit trees in forestlands where indigenous hardwood species were required), leading to low survival rates.

Low Survival Rates and Ecological Cost: Survival rates were notoriously low, often hovering between 40% and 60% in the initial years, well below the required target. This means that billions of pesos were spent planting millions of seedlings that ultimately died due to poor site selection, lack of maintenance, or being the wrong species for the ecosystem. The failure to establish functional forests means the NGP largely failed in its primary goal of watershed protection and carbon sequestration, thus wasting critical funds intended for climate resilience and exposing communities to enhanced risks of landslides and flooding.

5. Agusan Marsh and the Impact of Mining/Logging in Agusan del Sur:

Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary (AMWS) Ecological Value: The AMWS is a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance, covering approximately 111,540 hectares (as cited in scientific literature) and storing more than 15% of the country's freshwater resource. Its Caimpugan Peatland, which spans over 5,000 hectares, is one of the Philippines' largest carbon reservoirs, estimated to store 22.9 million metric tons of carbon. The sanctuary hosts unique habitats like the Sago and Peat Swamp Forests and is home to over 216 bird species and 33 amphibian species, many of which are endemic.

Impact of Deforestation and Logging in Agusan del Sur: Deforestation in the upstream watershed is the main driver of severe siltation and sedimentation in the Agusan Marsh. This high sediment load, aggravated by extensive logging, reduces aquatic biodiversity by interfering with the respiration of fish and other organisms in the river and marsh. Studies have noted that the lack of forest cover to hold water leads to increased and more direct runoff into the marsh during heavy rain events, which disrupts the ecosystem and the life of the indigenous Manobo people living there.

Threats from Human Activities (Mining/Logging): The peatlands of AMWS are highly vulnerable. Disturbances like illegal logging, drainage, and agricultural expansion threaten the long-term integrity of the marsh. For instance, a large fire incident in 2019, which lasted for several weeks, burned significant areas of peatland, exposing its vulnerability and causing the release of stored carbon, which is an explicit threat in the context of climate change.

C. The Looming Threat of Tampakan Mining and Risks in BARMM

1. Tampakan Mining's Catastrophic Threats: The proposed project threatens to disrupt the headwaters of three major watersheds, potentially contaminating the Liguasan Marsh. It requires clearing nearly 4,000 hectares of land and displacing approximately 5,000 people from the ancestral domains of the Indigenous B'laan community (UP CIDS, 2024).

2. Liguasan Marsh: Ecological Value Under Threat: The largest swamp and marsh area in the Philippines and a federally declared Game Refuge and Bird Sanctuary (1941). It is a Key Biodiversity Area (KBA) that sustains endemic species (like the Critically Endangered Philippine Crocodile) and plays a crucial role in flood mitigation. The pursuit of coal and petroleum exploration directly threatens this vital ecosystem and the livelihoods of over 100,000 Maguindanaon families (IOM, 2023).

3. Threats and Risks to Mount Malindang Range Natural Park (MMRNP):

Biodiversity Hotspot Under Siege: The MMRNP is a UNESCO-nominated site, home to 2,283 recorded species of plants and animals, including numerous endemic species, particularly herpetofauna (ambiphians and reptiles). The protected area (34,694 hectares core) is one of the country's biodiversity hotspots.

Major Threat: Habitat Destruction and Forest Loss: The primary threat is the rapid loss of forest cover and habitat destruction due to the conversion of forest to agricultural farms by local communities, often driven by poverty and the need for immediate subsistence. This includes illegal logging and timber extraction in areas such as almaciga and submontane dipterocarp forests (SEARCA, 2006 [3.3], ResearchGate, 2010 [3.1]).

Erosion and Water Irregularity: The loss of forest cover in the MMRNP, which is the source of 17 major rivers and numerous tributaries, leads to soil erosion, and anecdotal evidence suggests stream flow is becoming more irregular, increasing the risks of both drought and flash flooding downstream (DENR-MMRNP, 2025 [1.1], MMRNP-PAMB, 2019 [1.3]).

4. Environmental Issues in BARMM and its Island Provinces (Basilan, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi):

A. Climate Change Vulnerability: BARMM, particularly its island provinces, is highly sensitive to climate change impacts, facing immediate risks from rising sea levels, storm surges, and saltwater intrusion into coastal agricultural areas and freshwater sources. Mainland provinces face more frequent and worsening typhoons and droughts (OCHA, 2024 [2.2], IOM, 2023 [2.3]).

B. Tawi-Tawi Mining Threats and Sama Bajau Issues: Tawi-Tawi is a coastal and marine-dependent province. While the area is known for its seaweed farming (it is the seaweed capital of the country) and live fish trading, it faces significant nickel mining threats.

Active Nickel Mining: At least one active mining project is jointly operated by Altawitawi Nickel Corporation (ANC) and S.R. Languyan Mining Corporation in Tumabagaan Island, Languyan, Tawi-Tawi. This nickel ore project is covered by a Mineral Production Sharing Agreement (MPSA) (GMA News Online, 2014 [3.4]).

Coastal and Livelihood Destruction: Local residents, including the Sama Bajau (or Sama-Badjao) communities, who are traditionally reliant on fishing, foraging, and seaweed farming along the coastlines, fear that the mining operations will lead to siltation, soil erosion, and contamination of the surrounding waters, rendering the marine environment unusable (GMA News Online, 2014 [3.4]).

Resource Conflict: The mining activities directly conflict with the community's primary sources of livelihood and are opposed by residents who want to preserve the Buan Reef, a local protected area (GMA News Online, 2014 [3.4]). The Sama Bajau, being one of the most marginalized and vulnerable coastal groups in the region, are disproportionately affected by the destruction of the marine ecosystem which is central to their cultural identity and subsistence.

C. Biodiversity and Livelihood Loss: The changes in sea level and ecosystem health result in loss of and changes in marine biodiversity, directly impacting the fisheries industry and the livelihoods of coastal communities that depend heavily on these resources (OCHA, 2024 [2.2]).

D. Resource Competition and Conflict: Environmental risks and the subsequent loss of economic stability can act as catalysts for armed conflict and community tensions. Improper garbage disposal and competition over natural resources and areas (such as coastlines, marshes, and fish catches) disrupt social structures and exacerbate security risks, hindering the region's peaceful transition (IOM, 2023 [2.3]).

E. Extractive Industry Impact: While large-scale mining is less dominant than in other Mindanao regions, the reliance on coastal and marine resources makes them vulnerable to land-based pollution, overfishing, and destructive fishing practices (DENR-MMRNP, 2025 [1.4]), which, alongside climate risks, leads to significant economic deterioration and increased deprivation among the population (OCHA, 2024 [4.2]).

D. Pervasive Corruption and the Plunder of Public Services

The monopoly of political power by dynasties (e.g., Romualdez, Villar, and others with control over regional political and economic resources) facilitates large-scale fraud across sectors:

1. Role of Dynasties in Plunder: These families leverage political control over key agencies (such as the DPWH and DENR) to direct government contracts, permits, and budget allocations to their business interests. This allows them to maximize profit from extractive and ecologically destructive operations (mining, quarrying, land conversion) and infrastructure projects.

2. Corruption's Direct Role in Poverty and Hunger: Corruption is not just a financial drain; it is a direct cause of poverty and hunger. Funds diverted from essential services—such as the Fertilizer and Rice Fund Scams (where billions meant for farmers' inputs were stolen), PhilHealth Scams (denying healthcare to the poor), and Fraudulent Education/Infra spending—directly undermine the safety nets and productive capacity of the poor. When billions are stolen from agricultural subsidies, farmers cannot afford to plant, leading to lower yields, higher food prices (inflation), and increased poverty. Ghost projects in flood control (Section D) lead to preventable deaths and destruction of homes and livelihoods, pushing millions back below the poverty line. Therefore, corruption acts as an independent amplifier of hunger and poverty, often overriding gains made by economic growth.

3. Plunder in Critical Social Sectors: Corruption pervades Agriculture, Health, and Education, undermining essential services:

A. Agriculture (Fertilizer and Rice Fund Scams, FMRs, and Cartels): This area is plagued by multiple layers of fraud:

Subsidy Fraud (Fertilizer and Rice Fund Scams): These involve large-scale procurement fraud where billions of pesos, intended for subsidizing fertilizers, providing seeds, and supporting rice farmers (e.g., from the Rice Competitiveness Enhancement Fund – RCEF), are stolen through overpriced contracts, ghost deliveries, or kickbacks. This directly deprives small farmers of crucial inputs, leading to lower yields, increased indebtedness, and a compromised national food supply (as detailed in Section II.A).

Farm-to-Market Road (FMR) Corruption: FMRs, vital for connecting farmers to markets, are systematically abused. Funds are drained through “ghost” road projects, massive overpricing of construction materials and labor, and substandard construction that leads to rapid deterioration. Corrupt local and regional officials (DPWH and DA) collude with favored contractors (often linked to political dynasties) to certify incomplete or non-existent roads for full payment, leaving farmers isolated and unable to transport their produce efficiently.

Importation Cartels and Irregularities: Powerful cartels control the importation of key agricultural commodities (rice, sugar, onions, pork, etc.). These cartels manipulate supply by controlling import quotas, securing irregular permits, or smuggling, which allows them to artificially inflate domestic prices, exploit consumers, and simultaneously undercut local farmers by flooding the market at strategic times. This practice severely compromises local production and is enabled by collusion with personnel within the Bureau of Customs (BOC), Department of Agriculture (DA), and other regulatory agencies.

B. Health (PhilHealth Scams): The Philippine Health Insurance Corporation (PhilHealth) has been subject to massive fraudulent schemes, including the alleged use of “ghost patients” or fictitious claims amounting to billions of pesos. This plunder of public funds directly drains the universal healthcare system, leading to poor quality of care, lack of critical medical supplies, and the denial of subsidized treatment to the poorest Filipinos who rely on PhilHealth for survival.

C. Education (Textbook and Infra Fraud, Intelligence Funds): Corruption in the Department of Education (DepEd) often involves schemes like the overpricing of textbooks, computer equipment, and school furniture, or the construction of substandard or non-existent school buildings and classrooms. The overpricing of educational materials deprives millions of students of quality learning resources, directly affecting educational outcomes and long-term economic mobility. Fraudulent school infrastructure spending leaves students and teachers vulnerable to overcrowding and collapse, particularly during disasters. Furthermore, the allocation and rapid disbursement of Vice President Sara Duterte's confidential and intelligence funds (CIF) (e.g., a reported ₱125 million CIF in 2022) within the civilian education agency, which has no direct security mandate, raised serious concerns about transparency, accountability, and the proper use of public funds intended for the education of Filipino youth (COA/Congressional Hearings, 2023).

4. Accountability Findings: The Commission on Audit (COA) reports consistently flagged widespread anomalies. Furthermore, the Office of the Ombudsman / Independent Commission for Infrastructure (ICI) investigations, which led to official press releases and Sandiganbayan filings (Dated November 18, 2025), found high-level officials and connected contractors—often linked to specific political families—liable for the flood control scam (see Section D) and other major corruption issues, leading to criminal and administrative cases (Office of the Ombudsman / Independent Commission for Infrastructure (ICI), 2025).

E. The Plunder of Climate Resilience: Infrastructure Corruption (2016–Present)

1. The Scale of Lost Funds (2022–2025): Budget appropriations for flood control projects surged from ₱79 billion in 2016 to over ₱200 billion annually by 2021. Of the ₱800 billion DPWH climate budget in 2025, an estimated ₱560 billion was potentially lost to corruption due to kickbacks (up to 25%) and ghost projects. Greenpeace estimates that up to ₱1.089 trillion in climate-tagged expenditures may have been lost to corruption since 2023 (Greenpeace, 2025 [1.1]).

2. Mechanisms of the Flood Control Scam and Those Involved:

The Actors: The scheme is orchestrated by a network involving political dynasties (national and local politicians controlling the DPWH budgets and appointments), private contractors (often dummy corporations or firms owned by the politicians' families/associates), and colluding personnel (corrupt officials within the DPWH and local government units (LGUs) who process fraudulent documents and release payments).

The Scheme ("Ghost Projects" and Falsified Documents): The primary mechanism is the creation of "ghost" flood control projects—projects that are either never built, are built with substandard materials and quickly degrade, or are grossly overpriced/incomplete. DPWH regional and district engineers, often working under the direction of the controlling politician/dynasty, prepare falsified project accomplishment reports, inspection certifications, and billing statements.

The Financing and Kickbacks: Funds, often sourced from the rising infrastructure budget and climate-finance loans, are released by the Budget Department and DPWH Financial Services based on these fraudulent documents. The contractor (politician's proxy) then receives the payment and funnels a significant kickback (up to 25% or more) back to the ranking politicians and the corrupt DPWH personnel. A November 2025 investigation by the Independent Commission for Infrastructure (ICI) confirmed that the systematic kickback system involving high-level DPWH officials and elected politicians was central to the scam (Office of the Ombudsman / Independent Commission for Infrastructure (ICI), 2025).

3. Consequence: The failure of these plundered flood control projects is fatal, directly causing higher death tolls and devastation during strong typhoons. When natural defenses are destroyed by illegal logging and mining, and the planned engineered defenses are corrupted or absent, communities are left defenseless against climate impacts.

F. Impact of Plunder and Environmental Crisis on the Working Class

Corruption and environmental destruction function as a double-whammy that directly harms the Filipino working class, suppressing incomes, worsening working conditions, and driving job losses:

1. Direct Job Losses from Corruption and Climate Shocks:

The “ghost” flood control projects have been directly linked to massive job displacement. As of July 2025, around 147,000 construction workers were added to the ranks of the unemployed, partly attributed to the non-existent or undone infrastructure projects that should have provided gainful employment in the countryside (DOLE/Philstar, 2025 [3.1]).

Workers in the construction and agriculture sub-sectors are particularly vulnerable to job displacement caused by extreme weather and flooding—damages that are amplified by the failure of corrupted flood control systems (DOLE/Philstar, 2025 [3.1]).

2. Reduced Labor Productivity and Income Loss from Climate Stress:

Climate change-induced heat in the workplace is projected to cause a loss of working hours, which translates directly into lost wages and reduced national labor supply. According to a 2016 UN study, this heat is projected to render a 1% loss in working hours by 2025, 2% by 2050, and 4% by 2085 (NICCDIES, 2025 [2.1]).

Overall, the distributional impacts of climate change, such as rising food prices due to agricultural yield drops and damages to assets/income, disproportionately affect the poor working class, who spend a higher share of their income on food (World Bank, 2025 [2.5]).

3. Health Costs and Suppressed Labor Standards:

Air pollution (largely from vehicle emissions and industrial fossil fuel use, exacerbated by weak enforcement and corruption) is the third highest risk factor driving death and disability in the Philippines. In 2019, air pollution was estimated to be responsible for 66,230 deaths and a total economic cost of ₱2.32 trillion (US$ 44.8 billion), or 11.9% of the country’s GDP (CREA, 2023 [2.3]). This high morbidity directly reduces the working lifespan and health of the labor force.

Corruption hinders the government's ability to protect workers' rights and ensure decent work. It diverts funds from labor inspection, which should ensure that labor standards, including safety and wages, are observed in workplaces, enabling employers to suppress wages and ignore health protocols with impunity (CTUHR, 2025 [4.1]).

4. Brain Drain and Inequality:

Corruption creates a climate where jobs are granted based on political connections rather than merit. This cronyism increases the unemployment rate and reduces the returns to human capital investment for qualified workers, becoming a key factor in the emigration of skilled and highly-educated workers (brain drain). It also increases inequality and poverty by favoring the well-connected and diverting funds from essential social spending like health and education (IMF/IZA, 1998/2018 [4.3, 4.5]).

G. The Loss of Natural Defense: Forest and Mangrove Cover

1. Tree Cover and Forest Loss (2016–Present) The Philippines lost approximately 1.5 million hectares (Mha) of total tree cover (2001–2024), including 200 kha of primary forest. This decline is concentrated in Palawan (220 kha loss) and Agusan del Sur (130 kha loss). As of 2022, the total forest cover is estimated at 7.22 million hectares, or about 24.07% of the total land mass (Global Forest Watch (GFW), 2024).

2. Mangrove Cover Loss: The continued destruction of mangroves (historically due to conversion for aquaculture and development) means that without these critical buffers, flooding and damages to people and property are estimated to increase annually by approximately 25% (World Bank, 2017).

H. Debt Burden and Fiscal Constraints

1. Public-Debt Trajectory (2010–2025) – The Philippines’ gross public debt rose from roughly ₱4.9 trillion (using the $1=₱45 average for the initial amount provided) to a massive ₱16.2 trillion (≈ 65% of GDP) by late 2025, reflecting successive stimulus packages for disaster response, pandemic relief, and infrastructure projects. The total figure of ₱6.8 trillion originally cited represents only a segment of the broader public debt landscape (e.g., central government debt vs. total public sector debt). The ₱16.2 trillion includes the general government debt (local and national) and the debt of government-owned and controlled corporations (GOCCs), which is the total public debt (Bureau of the Treasury, 2025 [1.1]).

2. Debt-Service Pressures – Annual debt service climbed from around ₱150 billion in 2015 to roughly ₱420 billion in 2025, consuming about 3–4% of GDP each year. More than half of the debt is external, exposing the country to exchange-rate volatility and creditor conditionalities that can limit sovereign policy space.

3. Implications for Climate-Resilience Funding – High debt-service obligations shrink the fiscal envelope for transparent, climate-resilient investments. Misallocation of borrowed funds—particularly the “ghost” flood-control projects highlighted in Section D—magnifies the opportunity cost of each additional peso of debt, eroding public trust and delaying needed adaptation measures.

4. Policy Recommendations (Debt-Focused) –

 

Debt-for-Nature Swaps: Negotiate with bilateral creditors to redirect a portion of debt repayments toward verified reforestation, mangrove restoration, and community-based climate-adaptation projects.

Enhanced Debt-Tracking: Establish a publicly accessible debt register and require that any new borrowing be earmarked for climate-smart, socially inclusive initiatives, subject to independent audit.

I. Climate-Finance Loans and Grants (2023–2025)

1. Key Multilateral Commitments – The Asian Development Bank approved a $1.2 billion Climate Resilience Loan (2023–2025) with strict ESG compliance and transparent procurement requirements. The World Bank delivered a $500 million Green Climate Fund grant in 2024, conditioned on community participation and gender-responsive budgeting. The IMF’s Catastrophe Contingent Credit Line provided $750 million (2023–2025) subject to macro-fiscal safeguards and debt-sustainability tests. The European Investment Bank committed €600 million (≈ $660 million) for sustainable infrastructure (2024–2025) with a “no-cash-transfer” clause for corrupt entities.

2. Allocation Priorities – Roughly 30% of the total climate-finance pool (about $540 million) is earmarked for mangrove and coastal-ecosystem restoration across Palawan, the Visayas, and Mindanao. About 35% targets resilient infrastructure—flood controls, early-warning systems, and related hard-scape upgrades—requiring transparent, third-party monitoring. Twenty percent supports an agricultural transition to agro-ecology, providing subsidies for smallholder diversification, organic inputs, and climate-smart irrigation. The remaining 15% funds community-led disaster preparedness and livelihood programs, linking cash grants to legal protections for environmental defenders.

3. Challenges in Disbursement – Audits indicate that up to 12% of climate-finance allocations have been siphoned into “ghost” contracts, reflecting lingering corruption. Overlapping mandates among the National Climate Change Commission, the Department of Public Works and Highways and local governments create duplication and delay. Limited real-time satellite verification hampers accountability for reforestation outcomes.

4. Policy Recommendations (Finance-Focused) –

Create a Climate-Finance Oversight Board independent of the DPWH and NCC, comprising civil-society, indigenous representatives, and international auditors.

Link Loan Repayment to Measurable Outcomes such as restored mangrove hectares or reduced flood-damage claims, ensuring that financing is performance-based.

Integrate Debt-for-Nature Swaps (see Section G) into the climate-finance portfolio, allowing sovereign debt reduction while funding ecosystem restoration.

Having identified the root causes, we can now outline a forward‑looking agenda.

IV - The Path Forward: Justice and Ecological Transformation

We must move beyond Bayanihan by demanding radical systemic change and accountability.

Transformative change begins with concrete institutional reforms and protective measures.

A. Institutionalizing Justice and Accountability

 

First, we must hold perpetrators of corruption and environmental plunder accountable.

1. Criminal and Financial Accountability: Vigorously pursue and secure the conviction of all officials and contractors involved in the flood control scam and all other major corruption issues. Hold local and foreign extractive corporations criminally and financially accountable.

Second, safeguarding human‑rights, land, and environmental defenders is essential.

2. Protecting Defenders: Enact laws defending and protecting human rights, land and environment defenders to ensure the security of all individuals and communities resisting corporate plunder.

The severity of the threat to defenders is reflected in recent data.

A. Verifiable Data on Attacks and Threats (2010-2024): The Philippines has consistently been ranked as one of the most dangerous countries globally for environmental defenders, particularly those opposing mining, logging, and large-scale agricultural operations.

Global Ranking (2012–2022): Global Witness reported that the Philippines ranked as the most dangerous country in Asia and was among the top three globally for killings of land and environmental defenders, with over 280 killings recorded between 2012 and 2022.

Targeted Killings (2023): In 2023 alone, at least 13 environmental and land defenders were killed, continuing the lethal trend.

Targeting Indigenous Peoples: A disproportionate number of victims are members of Indigenous communities, such as the Lumad in Mindanao, who are defending their ancestral domains against extractive industries. The Karapatan (Alliance for the Advancement of People's Rights) and Global Witness reports have repeatedly documented how these defenders face extrajudicial killings, enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrests, and are frequently subjected to "red-tagging" (maliciously being labeled as communists or terrorists) by state forces, which justifies harassment and ultimately leads to their deaths.

Focus on Mindanao: Attacks are heavily concentrated in the regions of Mindanao (Caraga, Davao, Soccsksargen), which are rich in mineral resources and agricultural plantations. The victims are primarily those engaged in campaigns against large-scale mining, logging, and dam projects (Global Witness, 2024 [2.1], Karapatan, 2025).

3.Specific Issues of Non-Moro Indigenous Peoples (NMIPs) in the BARMM:

The Non-Moro Indigenous Peoples (NMIPs) in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region (like the Teduray and Lambangian in Maguindanao) are highly vulnerable, facing violence and land-related conflicts. They are often perceived as a "minority within a minority" amidst the push for Moro self-governance, which can lead to their marginalization from the peace process (LRC, 2021 [2.8]).

Killings: At least 102 non-Moro Indigenous Persons have been killed in the Bangsamoro region since the BARMM's establishment in 2019, with violence often targeting respected tribal leaders who oppose encroachment (MindaNews, 2025 [1.6]). Brutal incidents, such as the beheading of Teduray elder Ramon “Nel” Lupos in Datu Hoffer Ampatuan in September 2025, highlight the ongoing impunity for these acts (Europe Solidaire Sans Frontières, 2025 [1.1]).

Displacements and Violence: The NMIPs are continually subjected to forced displacement, with armed groups burning houses and crops (LRC, 2021 [2.8]). For example, more than 900 Teduray-Lambangian families were displaced in South Upi, Maguindanao del Sur, in December 2020 due to violence, and similar incidents of forced evacuation have continued (House of Representatives, 2024 [1.5]).

Ancestral Domain Invasion: A core issue for the NMIPs, including the Teduray and Lambangian, is the threat to their untitled ancestral domains (Fusaka Ingëd) from land grabs, illegal loggers, agribusiness ventures, and mining interests (Europe Solidaire Sans Frontières, 2025 [1.1]). This is compounded by the delayed recognition of their claims; the Teduray-Lambangian Ancestral Domain Claim (TLADC), for instance, remains unvalidated despite being submitted to the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) as early as 2005 (House of Representatives, 2024 [1.5], IAG, 2020 [3.4]).

Targeted legislation can close the gaps that allow these abuses to persist.

3. Enacting Foundational Legislation: Implement the National Land-Use Act (NLUA). Replace the destructive Philippine Mining Act of 1995 with the Alternative Minerals Management Law (AMML). Pass the Climate Accountability Act (CLIMA) (House Bill 9609).

 

Systemic change also requires a shift in how we manage natural resources and production.

B - Comprehensive Ecological Structural/Systemic Transformation

Redirecting subsidies toward diversified, community‑managed agriculture builds resilience.

- Support for Regenerative Agro-Ecological Economies: Shift state support, subsidies, and infrastructure investment from destructive agribusiness monocrops, which serve extractive capital, to regenerative agro-ecological economies. These must be built on sustainable practices, crop diversification, food sovereignty, community-managed resources (commons), and the deep recognition and support of Indigenous Peoples' sustainable, biocentric practices. This directly implements the Life-Sustaining Resourcing task.

Treating strategic minerals as commons ensures they serve national, not private, interests.

- Sovereignty-Based Industrialization (SBI) and Resource Commoning: Utilizes the AMML framework to treat all strategic minerals and resources as strategic national and planetary assets. These resources must be held in common and used primarily for domestically processing and manufacturing high-value products essential for building the new regenerative economy (e.g., renewable energy infrastructure, public transit). This principle rejects the export of raw materials for private profit, thereby supporting the Deconstruction of Extractive Capital.

A decisive ban on destructive extraction paired with massive restoration is vital.

- Mandated Ecological Protection and Restoration: Mandates a Total Ban on Destructive Industries (e.g., large-scale extractive mining, fossil fuel projects) in critical watersheds, coastal zones, and prime agricultural lands. This ban is coupled with a massive, state-supported, decentralized effort to restore Mangrove Forests and Coastal Wetlands, and reforest degraded lands. This dual action drives the Construction of regenerative systems and establishes Bioregional Accountability.

These policy levers must be embedded within a broader societal movement and a coordinated, environment and people‑centered structure is essential to turn vision into reality.

V - The People's Mandate: Integral Action for Systemic Transformation

The current historical moment demands not mere reform, but a fundamental, system-wide transformation toward establishing Integrated, Sustainable, Democratic, and Accountable Governance. This vision is achievable only through the sustained, unified force of a consolidated political and social movement committed to the simultaneous and integral process of dismantling the old system (Deconstruction) and building the new (Construction). 

In fulfilling the urgent, transitional and strategic tasks, we need centers and units of functioning; a holistic, directly democratic unit can steer the transformation process - the organs of political power.

The Organ of Political Power is the singular, holistic unit of collective leadership—such as a community assembly, workers' collective, or other directly democratic structure—tasked with executing the Comprehensive Ecological Structural/Systemic Transformation. Its mandate is not merely to govern existing structures but to fundamentally transform the system through a unified, integrated, and perpetual process of Deconstruction (dismantling the old) and Construction (building the new).

First, dismantle elite‑controlled governance and build participatory self‑rule.

I. Mandate for System Transformation

The core function is to achieve Integrated, Sustainable, Democratic, and Accountable Governance by ensuring the country is safe, the government is accountable, and the economy serves life. This mandate is executed through five Integrated Tasks pursued simultaneously:

1. Asserting Popular Sovereignty

The Organ is mandated to deconstruct elite-controlled government and its associated mechanisms of centralized, top-down rule. Simultaneously, it must construct participatory self-governance by institutionalizing the direct and active political control of the populace, making the people the sole, legitimate source of state power.

Second, replace extractive capitalism with regenerative, cooperative economies.

2. Implementing Life-Sustaining Resourcing

This task is to deconstruct extractive capital’s profit-driven economy. The Organ must then construct resilient, post-capitalist, and regenerative economies. This involves actively prioritizing and materially supporting the foundation of worker-owned cooperatives, regenerative agroecology, commons management structures, and robust mutual aid networks to ensure resources flow to sustain life, not generate private profit.

Third, shift cultural narratives from anthropocentrism to biocentric stewardship.

3. Driving Consciousness Transformation

The mandate extends into the ideological sphere, requiring the Organ to deconstruct oppressive ruling-class and anthropocentric ideology—the belief in human dominion over nature. It must actively construct new cultural norms rooted in equity, liberation, and collective ecological stewardship, thereby embedding a biocentric, life-affirming worldview into social practice and institutional design.

Fourth, align political authority with ecological limits of each region.

4. Establishing Persistent Bioregional Accountability

This requires the Organ to deconstruct centralized, corrupt power and its destructive relationship with local environments. The construction phase involves establishing democratic trust, accountability, and transparency that is strictly defined by the limits and needs of the local ecosystem. This grounds political power within the ecological realities of the territory, ensuring long-term systemic viability and environmental integrity.

Finally, unify localized actions under a planetary‑liberation vision.

5. Achieving Strategic Coherence and Expansion

The Organ is responsible for preventing fragmentation by unifying all localized efforts under a single transformative vision. The objective is to create a powerful, non-fragmented superseding legitimacy for planetary liberation, ensuring that localized successes contribute to a comprehensive systemic change rather than isolated reforms. This legitimacy must be democratically earned through consistent action prioritizing the common good over private wealth.

With clear purpose and collective resolve, the path forward becomes actionable.

II. The Unwavering Commitment

The Mandate’s Unwavering Commitment is clear: to pursue the fundamental transformation of the system until the alternative norms of collective, regenerative control are permanently rooted in the empowered will of the people and the planet. The power sought and exercised by the Organ is defined as liberation—of humanity (the oppressed) and the Earth.

Written and Compiled by Bagat Notes with Lumo and Gemini assistance. November 19, 2025. Additional inputs on November 20, 2025.

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References and Data Sources

ABS-CBN News: "Higher cost of Kaliwa Dam gets NEDA Board nod" (April 2025). [4.1]

Agusan Marsh Reports: Scientific journals, DENR publications, and Ramsar site information on the Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary (AMWS) and Caimpugan Peatland (1999–2024).

Alyansa Tigil Mina (ATM): Press Statements (October 2025); Statement on Davao de Oro mining village landslide (February 2024). URL: https://www.alyansatigilmina.net/ [1.1, 1.2, 1.3]

Asian Development Bank (ADB): “ADB to Program $10 Billion in Climate Finance for Philippines” (COP28 Announcement, December 2023).

Bureau of the Treasury (BTr): "Outstanding Debt of the National Government and the Public Sector" (Official Reports, 2010-2025). [1.1]

Center for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA): "Estimating the Health & Economic Cost of Air Pollution in the Philippines" (Report, February 2023). [2.3]

Center for Trade Union and Human Rights (CTUHR): "Corruption hampers govt protection of workers' rights" (October 2025). [4.1, 4.2]

Climate Rights International (CRI): “Broken Promises: Philippines Nickel Mining Causes Abuses, Increases Climate Risks” (Report, 2025). [2.1, 2.2]

Commission on Audit (COA): Various Annual Audit Reports (2016–2024); Congressional testimony/reports on the use of Confidential/Intelligence Funds (2023).

Conservation Gateway (Waves): “Valuing protective services of mangroves in the Philippines” (Report, 2016). [1.4]

Context by TRF: "Indigenous Filipinos fight Kaliwa dam project on their land" (March 2023). [1.5]; "Philippines uses mangrove buffer zones to protect its coastlines" (May 2025). [1.3]

DENR-MMRNP: "Welcome to Official Website of Mount Malindang" (Source: Endangered Beauty-SEARCA) (2025). [1.1]

Ej Atlas: “Didipio Gold and Copper mine, Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines” (Last update: 2022-04-25). URL: [suspicious link removed]... [3.1]; “Rio Tuba and Coral Bay nickel mining and processing in Palawan, Philippines” (Last update: 2022-05-02). [5.3]

Electronics Watch: “Human Rights and Environmental Impact of Nickel Mining at Rio Tuba” (Report, 2022). [5.2]

Europe Solidaire Sans Frontières (ESSF): "Non-Moro Indigenous Peoples' Rights (Mindanao, Philippines): Advocates Demand Justice and Protection for NMIPs in BARMM on IPRA Anniversary" (October 2025). [1.1]

Global Forest Watch (GFW): Philippines Deforestation Rates & Statistics (Data current up to 2024).

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Institute for Autonomy and Governance (IAG): Policy Brief: Moving Forward the Non-Moro Indigenous Peoples' Agenda in the Bangsamoro (February 2020). [3.4]

International Monetary Fund (IMF): “Does Corruption Affect Income Inequality and Poverty?” (Working Paper, 1998). [4.3]

International Organization for Migration (IOM): “UNRAVELING THE NEXUS” Study (2023). [2.3]

IZA World of Labor: “Does corruption promote emigration?” (Article, 2018). [4.5]

Karapatan (Alliance for the Advancement of People's Rights): Fact-finding reports on Human Rights Violations (2025).

Legal Rights and Natural Resources Center (LRC): “Evacuees in their own land: Indigenous peoples' struggle for recognition in the Bangsamoro” (March 2021). [2.8]

MindaNews: "102 non-Moro IPs killed in Bangsamoro region since 2019 – peace monitor" (October 2025). [1.6]

MMRNP-PAMB: "Mt. Malindang Range Natural Park (MMRNP) Profile" (2019). [1.3]

Mongabay: "Controversial dam gets green light to flood a Philippine protected area" (October 2019). [1.2]

National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC): Official reports (2012, 2013, 2022).

National Integrated Climate Change Database and Information Exchange System (NICCDIES): “Climate Change Impacts” (Website Data, 2025). [2.1]

Nature Conservancy: “Mangroves for coastal defence” (Technical Report). [1.2]

OCHA: "Climate Change and Conflict in BARMM" (2024). [2.2, 4.2]

Office of the Ombudsman / Independent Commission for Infrastructure (ICI): Official press releases and Sandiganbayan filings (Dated November 18, 2025); DPWH Engineer Testimony / ICI Referral (September 2025).

Philippine Alliance of Human Rights Advocates (PAHRA): Reports on human rights monitoring and killings of environmental activists (2025).

Philippine News Agency (PNA): "Kaliwa Dam to displace 200 families: Quezon IPs" (February 2023). [3.2]

Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism (PCIJ): "PH's $211-M Kaliwa Dam may submerge half of homes in Sierra Madre's village" (December 2024). [1.3]

Philstar.com: “Job losses due to corruption” (Opinion/News, September 2025). [3.1]

RD Lasco and FB Pulhin - cifor-icraf: “Assessing the Role of Watershed Areas in Mitigating Climate Change in the Philippines: The Case of the La Mesa Watershed” (2024). [1.3]

ResearchGate: "Distribution of endemic and threatened herpetofauna in Mt. Malindang, Mindanao, Philippines" (2010). [3.1]

SEARCA: "Endangered Beauty: Mt. Malindang and its Environs in Mindanao, Philippines" (2006). [3.3]

UP Center for Integrative and Development Studies (UP CIDS): “Ravaged” Forum Proceedings on Tampakan Mining (2024).

Waves Partnership: “Valuing the Protection Services of Mangroves in the Philippines Policy Brief” (2016). [1.1]

World Bank (WB): Post-Disaster Needs Assessments (PDNA) (2013); Philippines Climate and Development Report (2022); “The Distributional Impacts of Climate Change Damage…” (Report, 2025). [2.5]